Originally published in the Central States Archaeological Journal July 1981
by David H. Dye, University of Memphis
At top: Figure 1. Raptor talon effigy bifaces excavated from a house floor, Link Farm site (40HS6) (A.D. 1300-1400), Humphreys County, Tennessee. Courtesy of the McClung Museum of Natural History and Culture, University of Tennessee. photograph by David H. Dye
Over a hundred years ago Warren K. Moorehead, an early twentieth-century archaeologist, lamented the widespread use of the word “spud” to describe spatulate-shaped Mississippian ritual axes. His reaction stemmed from late nineteenth century archaeologists who reasoned that Mississippian spatulate celts functioned in the same way as modern, narrow-bladed spades or “spuds” used to dig potatoes. Much has changed since then; ritual weaponry is now interpreted as fundamental to Mississippian religious performance and ritual. Ritual or symbolic weaponry, either as artifacts or art motifs, are a widespread Mississippian phenomenon, characterized by their aesthetic qualities, distinctive stylistic differences, exaggerated size, exotic material, and high level of crafting. An early period from approximately A.D. 1000 to 1250 includes Cahokia type, flared-bit flint celts, which have been knapped into shape, ground, and then highly polished. Also crafted in the eleventh through early thirteenth centuries are crown-form maces, long-polled spatulate celts, and Ramey knives. These forms fell out of favor and another set assumed popularity between about A.D. 1250 and 1500, including copper axe heads, “Duck River” sword form bifaces, monolithic axes and short-handle spatulate celts. A third set of Mississippian ritual weaponry, dating between A.D. 1500 and 1650, includes new forms of copper axe heads, late short pole spatulate celts, and rectangular axes. Descendant communities of Mississippian people continue to use symbolic weaponry on ritual occasions.
The earliest iconography portrayals of symbolic weaponry are found at Picture Cave, where early eleventh century culture heroes carry bows and arrows and brandish crown-form maces. Their antagonists’ cannibalistic giants holding war clubs – were also painted on the cave walls. Marine shell cups and gorgets in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries exhibit culture heroes grasping axes, bifaces, bows, maces, and war clubs. The thirteenth century Rogan plate is perhaps the best-known example of a Mississippian culture hero holding a ritual weapon. The culture hero, Morning Star, wields a crown-form mace in the right hand and holds a head in the left hand. Once thought to represent combat and warfare, the image is now perceived as the iconic representation of a religious narrative, which portrays a mortal contest in which Morning Star is beheaded and his son retrieves his father’s head and restores him back to life. These the artistic representations are interpreted as illustrating the eternal contest of life and death. Symbolic weaponry assumes a central role in Mississippian art and iconography. That these forms are found in archaeological contexts alerts us to their long-term importance in performance and ritual. These ritual goods were so powerful they were not mundane exchange objects, but rather they would have been bestowed from one elite individual to another as a component of sacred bundles and rituals restricted to power-holding families and perhaps secret societies. Archaeological interpretations have moved beyond viewing ritual weaponry, such as spatulate celts and exaggerated bifaces, as agricultural spuds. Current ideas see these powerful religious objects as associated with ritual performance that honored Mississippian culture heroes such as the Hero Twins and Morning Star, deities who had once engaged in combat with the forces of death on behalf of humanity. David H. Dye received his Ph. D in anthropology from Washington University in St. Louis, and is currently a professor of Archaeology at the University of Memphis. He is author of several books, including “War Paths, Peace Paths: An Archaeology of Cooperation and Conflict in Native Eastern North America. ” In addition, he has contributed to and edited numerous volumes on the prehistoric Southeast. He is well known for his exquisite artifact photography.
Figure 2. Copper axe, Mound C, Etowah (9BR1) (A.D. 1250-1375), Bartow County, Georgia. Note partially preserved wooden handle. Courtesy of the Etowah Mounds Museum, Cartersville, Georgia. photograph by David H. Dye
Figure 3. Duck River sword-form biface, Mound C, Etowah (9BR1) (A.D. 1250-1375), Bartow County, Georgia. Note mica flakes glued to biface surface. Courtesy of the Etowah Mounds Museum, Cartersville, Georgia. photograph by David H. Dye
Figure 4. Short pole spatulate celt, Rogers Island site (lLu92) (A.D. 1350-1450), Lauderdale County, Alabama. Courtesy of the Office of Archaeological Research, University of Alabama. photograph by David H. Dye.